Wolfhounds and Polar Bears: The American Expeditionary Force in Siberia, 1918-1920
304
Wolfhounds and Polar Bears: The American Expeditionary Force in Siberia, 1918-1920
304Overview
In the final months of World War I, President Woodrow Wilson and many US allies decided to intervene in Siberia in order to protect Allied wartime and business interests, among them the Trans-Siberian Railroad, from the turmoil surrounding the Russian Revolution. American troops would remain until April 1920 with some of our allies keeping troops in Siberia even longer.
Few American citizens have any idea that the United States ever deployed soldiers to Siberia and that those soldiers eventually played a role in the Russian revolution while protecting the Trans-Siberian Railroad. Wolfhounds and Polar Bears relies on the detailed reports of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) as well as on personal stories to bring this rarely discussed expedition to life.
Initial chapters recount the period in World War I when conditions in Russia pointed to the need for intervention as well as the varied reasons for that decision. A description of the military forces and the geographic difficulties faced by those forces operating in Siberia provide the baseline necessary to understand the AEF’s actions in Siberia. A short discussion of the Russian Railway Service Corps explains their essential and sometimes overlooked role in this story, and subsequent chapters provide a description of actual operations by the AEF.
Wolfhounds and Polar Bears: The American Expeditionary Force in Siberia, 1918–1920 may well be the most detailed study of the military aspects of the American intervention in Siberia ever undertaken, offering a multitude of details not available in any other book-length history.
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9780817388980 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | University of Alabama Press |
| Publication date: | 06/15/2016 |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| Pages: | 304 |
| File size: | 10 MB |
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Wolfhounds and Polar Bears
The American Expeditionary Force in Siberia, 1918â"1920
By John M. House
The University of Alabama Press
Copyright © 2016 University of Alabama PressAll rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-8173-8898-0
CHAPTER 1
The Beginning
World War I was in its final months though no one knew that was the case. One of the Allies was caught in the death throes of a civil war. American doughboys were fighting alongside French and British soldiers in the trenches on the Western Front. America's families were learning the pain of loss and worry over loved ones far away. The Great War was ending its fourth year. The date was August 6, 1918.
A late evening meeting at a train station in the Midwest marked the start of a remarkable adventure that few Americans today know anything about. The details seem almost to come from a spy novel in which two men meet quietly in an out-of-the-way location to launch thousands of young men on an invasion of a foreign nation halfway around the world. The situation is murky. The threat is unclear. Intelligence is limited. Strong-willed military and civilian leaders from the United States and its allies argued for and against the invasion. Insufficient numbers of American or Allied soldiers were available for occupying the entire country.
Imagine the thoughts rolling through the mind of Maj. Gen. William S. Graves — an 1889 graduate of the US Military Academy and commander of the US Army's Eighth Division headquartered at Camp Fremont, California — when he was summoned to a meeting in Kansas City, Missouri, by the US Secretary of War Newton Baker. Graves arrived at the Kansas City train station at 10:00 P.M. after a two-day train ride from his duty station. Time was short so rather than meet at the Baltimore Hotel as planned, the two men discussed a fateful decision at the train station. Baker told Graves he would lead the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) that was deploying to Siberia. Baker also said, "If in the future you want to cuss anybody for sending you to Siberia I am the man." Graves received a sealed envelope with a seven-page letter titled "Aide Memoire" dated July 17, 1918. This document provides an outline of American policy in Russia. Baker's last instructions to Graves were, "Watch your step; you will be walking on eggs loaded with dynamite. God bless you and good-bye." Such words would make anyone wonder just what they had been told to do. Graves would discover just how much dynamite was in those eggs in the months ahead. The American soldiers with him would also discover the truth in Baker's warning.
Earlier in 1918, Graves had been the executive assistant to the US Army Chief of Staff, Gen. Peyton C. March, who had handpicked him for the Siberia assignment with the personal approval of the secretary of war. One of Graves's assistants was Capt. Robert L. Eichelberger, who would later rise to be a general officer himself. When Graves learned that he was to take command of a division to deploy overseas, he had Eichelberger select a division for the two of them to join. Therefore, Graves and Eichelberger found themselves reassigned to the Eighth Division at Camp Fremont, near Palo Alto, California, in July 1918. Graves expected the division to deploy to Europe in late August. During their trip to California, Graves told Eichelberger that the government was considering sending soldiers to Siberia with him as the commander even though March had assured Graves that he would go to Europe and not Siberia. Eichelberger, who would stay with Graves and accompany him to Siberia serving as chief of staff and intelligence officer at different times during the deployment as the AEF-Siberia experienced the typical rotation in personnel, would rise to the rank of lieutenant colonel. Maj. Sidney Graves, the general's son, also would deploy to Siberia. Obviously, General Graves's plans to command in Europe changed. While Graves did not show his staff the complete "Aide Memoire" at any time, the document served as their guide to American policy throughout their stay in Siberia.
Graves's new mission would take him thousands of miles away to a land where few Americans had been and even fewer wanted to visit. He would have to balance the demands of the Allies and American officials with the needs of his soldiers and the human suffering of the people who lived in the region. Orders and morality would sometimes conflict. Throughout this mission the instructions in the "Aide Memoire" would serve as a guide. Graves worked hard to achieve this balance so he could follow his orders and protect the innocent civilians in Siberia. The soldiers of the Twenty-Seventh Infantry Regiment Wolfhounds and the Thirty-First Infantry Regiment Polar Bears provided the muscle when he needed it whether in combat or humanitarian support. Their sacrifices are not well known, but they are worth remembering.
The following story will cover the reasons the US leadership decided to land soldiers in Siberia during the Russian civil war and while World War I still raged in Western Europe. Understanding the events on the Western Front and within revolution-torn Russia is necessary to begin to understand why American soldiers found themselves in Siberia. The poor road network made railway operations critical. The people controlling the railroad controlled the movement of people and supplies in the region. The discussion of AEF-Siberia operations will demonstrate the soldiers' efforts to cope with combat and humanitarian missions in a strange and very challenging environment, where even erstwhile allies could be enemies.
Even though few people know much about this intervention, it was one of the United States' first efforts in the twentieth century to use military power overseas to protect its interests without a formal declaration of war. The intervention in Siberia was part counterinsurgency, part combat, and part stability operation. The American soldiers persevered under trying circumstances and always tried to accomplish the assigned mission, even when the situation was unclear and the means to do so not always available. Shifting alliances and weak allies are not new experiences, though such lessons are not always easily learned.
Our history also can influence our present. Nations can have very different understandings of the same events. These differing views can then influence how national leaders relate to one another. The story of the intervention in Siberia includes the fear of Bolshevism that influenced the decision by the World War I Allies to send troops to northern Russia and Siberia. Time did little to reduce that tension between the Communist Soviet Union and the capitalist Western democracies. During World War II, in order to combat a common foe in Nazi Germany, Western democracies joined forces with the Communist Soviet Union. This alliance resulted in victory but did not develop into friendly relations for very long. The Cold War and division of Europe after World War II made these conflicts in objectives and policies very clear. The differences in political and economic systems ensured some level of disagreement, and the Soviet leaders also remembered that the Western powers had invaded their land once before.
The premier of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev, visited Los Angeles, California, on September 19, 1959. In his speech, he noted the thanks of the Russian people for American humanitarian support in 1922. However, he also remarked, "We also remember the grim days when immediately after the great October Revolution American soldiers went to our soil headed by their generals to help our White Guard combat the revolution." Khrushchev went on to blame Great Britain, Germany, Japan, Poland, and all other capitalist countries in Europe for the devastating civil war that closed factories and ruined farms, which caused famine. However, American relief saved children from starving. Clearly Khrushchev remembered the Siberian intervention and blamed the West for the deprivations and loss of lives that followed. With such thoughts on his mind, it is no small wonder that some level of distrust of Western motivations or possible actions might have colored any decision he made.
Contrast this with President Richard Nixon's televised speech in the Soviet Union in May 1972. Nixon remarked that the United States and Soviet Union "have never fought one another in war." Nixon recalled the meeting of American and Soviet soldiers at the Elbe River during World War II including that both countries were allies fighting a common enemy. He saw the United States and Soviet Union as having had common interests at least once in our histories. Nixon did not know or did not acknowledge that Americans and Soviet soldiers had at one time fought one another. President Ronald Reagan made similar comments in his 1984 State of the Union address. Reagan called for the people of the Soviet Union to support the United States in ridding the world of nuclear weapons. As a preface to these comments he emphasized that the two countries had never fought each other in a war. A New York Times survey conducted in 1985 found only 14 percent of Americans knew that the United States had sent soldiers to Siberia in 1918. Given that it has now been over ninety-five years since American soldiers deployed to Siberia and northern Russia, this history is most likely receding from the consciousness of most Americans. This lack of understanding of the conflict in American and Soviet history could not help but add to the mistrust accompanying interactions between two nations or groups of nations. There is no common understanding of our pasts upon which to base future interactions.
As our nation interacts with other nations in government and business, it is important for us to understand our corresponding views of our joint history. These memories may affect our willingness to cooperate or assist each other. Understanding the history of our allies and our enemies is important so that we also understand our resulting attitudes toward our futures. This then should help two countries find a common ground to meet other than a battlefield. At least such a goal is better than ignoring our past and finding that a relationship that might have been repaired was not.
The following chapters will afford an opportunity to review the situation in World War I, when conditions in Russia argued for intervention, as well as the varied reasons for that decision. A description of the military forces and the geographic difficulties faced by those forces operating in Siberia provide the baseline necessary to understand the AEF-Siberia's actions. A short discussion of the Russian Railway Service Corps explains their essential and sometimes overlooked role in this story. Several chapters provide a description of the actual operations by the AEF. These chapters typically end with a discussion of military operations elsewhere in Russia in order to provide a context for the actions occurring in Siberia that are the focus of this book. However, chapter 12 differs from the others in that it focuses on the typical sights along the railway by that stage in the intervention. The experiences of Americans who traveled great distances on the railroad rather than guarded specific facilities or patrolled areas around cities, railroad infrastructure, or other fixed sites provide a different perspective regarding events in Siberia. The final days of the AEF in the country are described next and followed by conclusions that can be drawn from the intervention. Throughout this operation, the lack of a clear mission supported by all elements of the US government and our Allies would interfere with America's soldiers surviving and accomplishing anything of value. Sit back now and get ready for a journey to a land far away during a period of time few people remember.
CHAPTER 2A World at War
An assassin's bullet began the twentieth century's bloody conflict now known as World War I. Gavrilo Princip was a member of a Slav revolutionary group known as the Black Hand Society that was determined to form a Greater Serbia through the merger of several Slav-dominated provinces in Bosnia-Herzegovina with Serbia. Princip's heritage was Serbian, but he was an Austrian citizen. On June 28, 1914, he murdered Archduke Franz Ferdinand and the archduke's wife, Sophie, while they rode in an open car on the streets of Sarajevo on the way to visit an officer wounded in a previous assassination attempt that day from a hand-thrown bomb. Ferdinand was the heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This assassination provided the justification for Austria-Hungary to attempt to crush Serbia. Unfortunately for Austria-Hungary, Russia was allied with Serbia. Nations chose sides based on powerful interests so that two basic groups resulted. Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed the Triple Alliance, though Italy would desert the Alliance in 1915. Great Britain, France, and Russia composed the Triple Entente, later known as the Allies or Allied Powers as the group enlarged. Czar Nicholas II of Russia ordered mobilization on July 31, 1914. Germany then had to mobilize to support its ally, Austria-Hungary, but now faced the possibility of a two-front war.
Germany's Schlieffen Plan called for an opening attack against France if faced with a two-front war. This was part of the German plan because the German military command believed that France could mobilize faster than Russia. Defeating France before she mobilized would then allow Germany to concentrate is military power against first one front and then the other. However, to initiate this attack against France, German army forces would have to advance through neutral Belgium and Luxembourg. Even though this risked war with more countries, Germany executed its plan. Germany's military mobilized on August 1 and the government demanded free passage through Belgium on August 2. After the Belgium government refused the demand on August 3, Germany then attacked on August 5. Great Britain had a treaty obligation since 1839 to protect Belgian neutrality. Germany also was a party to this treaty but clearly chose to ignore that. Germany ignored Britain's protest of this violation and did not stop its attack, so Great Britain declared war. Patriotic fervor inspired people to celebrate war as a great adventure.
The Western Front
The war evolved relatively quickly to a murderous stalemate on the Western Front. British, French, and German soldiers faced one another across a no-man's-land of torn earth, tangled debris, and shattered dreams of a quick victory and glory. Losses were appalling and robbed both sides of any chance of a rapid advance and quick end to the war. Massive artillery barrages pulverized towns into nothingness. Rotting bodies dotted the landscape until the continuous shelling obliterated any resemblance to humanity. Soldiers learned to ignore the bodies of the dead swallowed by shell craters and trenches. Farms and villages no longer covered the French countryside, which now more closely resembled the moon. Eventually airplanes, machine guns, and chlorine gas debuted during World War I and added to the carnage of the trenches. Death callously roamed Europe seeking victims on both sides. Great Britain incurred at least fifty-seven thousand casualties on a single day of battle in July 1916. Europe remorselessly destroyed its manhood while the Atlantic Ocean protected the United States from the bloodlust of the Western Front. However, events in February 1917 began to unravel this feeling of safety derived from distance and a large body of water.
The German kaiser ordered unrestricted submarine warfare on February 1, 1917, in an effort to apply pressure on the Triple Entente powers. American president Woodrow Wilson severed diplomatic relations with Germany. Great Britain increased American hard feelings toward Germany by providing a January 17, 1917, telegram from Germany to Mexico. This telegram advocated an attack by Germany and Mexico against the United States if American neutrality ended. A few weeks after these events, German U-boats sank several unarmed American ships, killing American citizens in an apparent direct provocation. The United States declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917.
US entry into World War I came none too soon for the beleaguered Allies. Massive casualties wrecked French morale and resulted in a French army mutiny during the Nivelle Offensive of April 1917. Exhaustion hindered any attempt to regain the ability to maneuver and win the war. The mobilization of the United States and the formation of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) that then deployed to Europe was a welcomed relief. Gen. John J. Pershing commanded the AEF.
The American entry into the war did not end the struggle, of course. American soldiers needed training for war in the trenches. American troops also had to reach France. While the Allies prepared to use this new resource, weapons development continued unabated. On November 20, 1917, the first large-scale use of tanks in combat occurred near Cambrai. British tanks forged a ten thousand–yard penetration in the German line. Even though this initial success was promising, the failure to adequately reinforce this success allowed the Germans time to coordinate counterattacks that recaptured most of the lost territory.
Fresh American troops on the battlefield posed a significant problem for Germany. No new allies were set to join her. Germany needed to win and to do it soon before the weight of men and materiel became unbeatable. Operation Michael was designed to hit the Cambrai to Saint Quentin portion of the Allied front near the juncture of British and French armies. Germany massed resources between November 1917 and March 1918 in order to strike a hard blow. By March, six American divisions reached France and were deployed in quiet sectors. These American divisions were large compared to Allied and German divisions. An American division in 1918 was authorized a total strength of 28,059 soldiers in two brigades of two regiments each. US casualties had reached 1,722 by this point; however, only 162 American soldiers had died due to battlefield action. Germany planned a great offensive before American manpower fully deployed to the front. Operation Michael began on March 21 with 6,100 German guns pounding the British lines. Germany continued to attack and advance step by step until June when the Allies managed to halt the offensive. American troops continued to arrive in France throughout this period. French and US forces counterattacked on July 18, 1918, to cut off the Marne River salient. The Allies had finally stopped Germany's great offensive.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Wolfhounds and Polar Bears by John M. House. Copyright © 2016 University of Alabama Press. Excerpted by permission of The University of Alabama Press.
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
1. The Beginning
2. A World at War
3. The Reasons and the Decision
4. The Military Forces
5. Siberia's Challenges
6. Russian Railway Service Corps
7. American Expeditionary Force
8. Initial Operations
9. Garrison Life
10. Railway Guard and the Twenty-Seventh Infantry
11. Railway Guard and the Thirty-First Infantry
12. Riding the Rails
13. The Final Days
Conclusion
Appendix A: Aide Memoire
Appendix B: AEF Principal Officers
Appendix C: AEF Strength Figures
Notes
Bibliography
Index